In the past, SEM has not offered the degree of resolution needed to reveal organelle substructure. Recently, some rather spectacular and highly informative photomicrographs of mitochondrial structure have been obtained by scanning electron microscopy of organelles that have been cracked open (Fig. The contemporary model of mitochondrial architecture is therefore based on decades of study using the transmission electron microscope.įigure 16-6 illustrates the typical organization revealed in thin sections of these organelles. Because mitochondria are so small, light microscopy reveals little about their structure. 16-5).įrom the point of view of fine structure, mitochondria are especially interesting and very intricate organelles. Dumbbell shapes are seen just prior to separation and the “handles” (or “tails”) of racket-shaped mitochondria may be the bridges that connect the separating mitochondrial halves (Fig. These odd shapes may be a reflection of the fission process by which mitochondria are believed to proliferate. In many electron photomicrographs, mitochondria appear to be dumbbell-shaped or racket-shaped. Usually the lower the numbers of mitochondria per cell, the larger are the individual organelles. Most mitochondria are ovoid bodies having a diameter between 0.5 and 1.0 µm and a length up to 7 µm. The size and shape of mitochondria, like the number in a cell, vary from one tissue to another and with the physiological state of the cells. An increased rate of cell growth and division also occurs since greater numbers of mitochondria produce more ATP in order to facilitate absorption of nutrients and the synthesis of cell components. However, cells that have been cultured in the absence of oxygen rapidly produce greater numbers of mitochondria if oxygen and appropriate nutrients are added to the culture. In yeast cells grown anaerobically, successive generations contain fewer and fewer mitochondria. Cells that are actively growing, producing especially large’ amounts of some product such as digestive enzymes, actively transporting materials into the cell, or undergoing movement may display increased numbers of mitochondria during periods of activity and reduced numbers during periods of quiescence. The number and distribution of mitochondria in a cell are closely related to the activity of the cell and its organelles. In many plant cells, cyclosis, the active streaming of the cytoplasm about the cells, tends to distribute the mitochondria uniformly. For example, in muscle tissue the mitochondria are aligned in rows parallel to the contractile fibrils (Fig. In general, when mitochondria are present in greater numbers in one part of the cell than another, it is usually near a site where significant ATP utilization is occurring. In epithelial cells lining the lumen of the small intestine, the mitochondria occur in greater numbers near the cell surface that is adjacent to the lumen (where active absorption of diestive products is occurring). Mitochondria also appear to be concentrated in metabolically active areas of cells. 16-3), the single mitochondrion is at the base of the flagellum. The distribution of the mitochondria in the cell can change with time. The functions associated with mitochondria are carried out in the cytosol or are associated with the plasma membrane. Prokaryotic cells such as bacteria and blue-green algae do not contain mitochondria. Kidney cells generally contain less that 1000 and liver cells can contain several thousand. Sperm cells have fewer than 100 mitochondria. Cells of higher animals also contain various numbers of mitochondria. At the other extreme are cells such as Chaos chaos, an amoeba, which contains several hundred thousand mitochondria.
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